Part 5: Educational attainment

Following on from the last part's look at participation in the education and training system, this part focuses on the results of that participation, what information exists on the educational attainment of New Zealanders, and how has this affected our level of human capital?

In a report on measuring human capital, the OECD1 identified three ways of measuring the stock of human capital:

1.  Measuring educational attainment

2.  Measuring skills directly

3.  Estimating the market value of human capital.

 
Measures of educational attainment include years of formal education and highest level of education or qualification attained. This is the most commonly used method due to the availability of data. However, educational attainment is an imperfect proxy for human capital. Educational attainment does not guarantee that the skills, knowledge and competence we are trying to measure have been acquired. Educational attainment ignores informal training (ie employer-based training). Educational attainment is also a snapshot in time – it does not show how these skills have been developed/depreciated since. In addition, differences in education systems between countries can limit international comparability.

Measuring skills directly provides a more direct indication of human capital levels and distribution in the population. This approach involves questionnaire-based assessment of competencies or skills. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) introduced in previous parts are examples of this approach. These assessments are run across many countries using a consistent methodology, aiding international comparability. However, each assessment can only measure certain aspects of skill and competence. In addition, the usual limitations of sample surveys (eg sample sizes affecting reliability of results) apply.

Estimating the market value of human capital involves aggregating data on projected labour market earnings over an individual's lifetime. The data involved in deriving these estimates are covered in part six.

Primary schools

Since 1995, the Ministry of Education, through the Educational Assessment Research Unit at the University of Otago, has been running the National Education Monitoring Project (NEMP). NEMP is a national assessment programme that monitors achievement trends over time for New Zealand year four and year eight students across all major curriculum areas. Some results from the first four-year cycle (1995 to 1998) of NEMP include:

• Girls outperformed boys in a substantial number of subjects, with the exceptions of physical education, science (both years four and eight) and social studies (year eight). The gap was particularly high in writing and reading, with the gap in these subjects increasing from year four to year eight (see table 5.01).
• Mäori students performed less well than their non-Mäori peers in most subject areas, although there was some improvement in overall performance between year four and year eight (see table 5.02).
• Students in high decile schools outperformed those in low decile schools by a significant margin, with the exceptions of physical education and art. The size of the gap did not change between year four and year eight (see table 5.03).

Secondary schools – educational attainment

The Ministry of Education maintains comprehensive statistics on student achievement at secondary schools. Examples of these are provided in tables 5.04 to 5.12.

• The number of school leavers were similar in 2001 (53,517) as in 1974 (55,192). This comparison masks a rise and fall with the peak in 1984 of 63,027 (see table 5.04).
• The proportion of school leavers with a 7th form qualification has increased from 12 percent to 37 percent between 1974 and 2001. Those leaving school with no qualifications decreased from 39 percent to 17 percent over the same period (see table 5.04).
• In 1987, the proportions of males and females gaining 7th form qualifications were roughly the same. Although, the likelihood of both males and females of gaining 7th form qualifications has increased, the improvement for females has been stronger, going from 24 percent in 1987 to 41 percent in 2001. The corresponding numbers for males were 25 percent in 1987 and 33 percent in 2001 (see table 5.05).
• The proportion of Mäori students leaving school with 7th form qualifications was 15.8 percent in 2000, compared with 23.3 percent for Pacific students and 62.3 percent for Asian students. None of these proportions have shown much change since 1996 (see table 5.06).
• In 2000, the number of Mäori students leaving school with no qualifications was 35.5 percent, down slightly from 39.0 percent in 1996. The corresponding proportions in 2000 for Pacific and Asian students of 26.2 percent and 9.6 percent respectively, were roughly the same as in 1996 (see table 5.06).
• The average length of stay at secondary school for school leavers increased from 3.6 years in 1976 to 4.5 years in 2001. The average number of years for Mäori students increased from 3.1 in 1976 to 4.1 in 2001. Average secondary schools years for Pacific and Asian pupils increased moderately between 1993 and 2001, from 4.3 to 4.5 and 4.7 to 4.8 respectively, while they remained steady for New Zealand European students at 4.5 years (see table 5.07).
• Nelson was the region with the highest proportion of secondary students leaving with 7th form qualifications in 2001, at 47 percent. Otago and Auckland also performed well on this indicator. Otago and Nelson had the lowest proportion of students leaving with no qualifications, at 12 and 13 percent respectively. At the other end of the scale, Tasman, in 2001, had the lowest proportion of school leavers with 7th form qualifications, at 23 percent and the highest proportion with no qualifications at 29 percent. The West Coast and Northland also performed poorly (see table 5.08).
• There was a substantial difference in the highest attainment of school leavers based on the socio-economic status of their schools. In 2001, the proportion of school leavers from schools in the top three socio-economic deciles with 7th form qualifications was 53 percent, compared with 21 percent for those from schools in the bottom three deciles. The proportion of those with no qualifications at high decile schools was 7 percent, compared with 30 percent at low decile schools (see table 5.09).
• In 2000, the proportion of year 11 students that sat school certificate in 2000 was 86 percent. The proportion that sat school certificate rose along with the socio-economic status of the school's community. Less than three-quarters of year 11 students at low socio-economic decile schools sat school certificate in 2000, compared with 95 percent of those at high socio-economic decile schools (see table 5.10).
• Table 5.10 also shows that of those who sat school certificate in 2000, 64 percent obtained an A, B or C grade. The corresponding figure for students at high socio-economic schools was 73 percent; for low socio-economic schools the figure was 46 percent. A similar pattern applies to 6th form certificate and university bursary results in 2000. These results are not surprising given that the socio-economic status of a school is assigned on the proportion of its students that experience barriers to learning (see the Glossary – socio-economic status).
• In 1998, private secondary school students performed better in school certificate exams than other pupils. For example, well over half of female private school students achieved an A or B on their school certificate papers, compared with 32 percent for female state school students, and 37 percent for female students from state integrated schools (see table 5.11).
• Overall, female university bursary students performed marginally better than their male counterparts in 1998, with 41.9 percent gaining a scholarship, A or B grade, compared with 40.6 percent of males. Female students out-performed males in English, physics and history, while males did better in economics and chemistry (see table 5.12).
• In terms of school type, single-sex schools outperformed co-educational schools in 1998's school certificate examinations (see table 5.13).

The OECD collates statistics on educational attainment by secondary school students in its member countries. Examples of these statistics are displayed in tables 5.13 and 5.14. Note that caution is required when comparing educational attainment statistics between countries as education systems can differ markedly between nations. In addition, some countries collect the data using surveys, others with administrative data. Country data may be for the beginning, middle or end of the school year. Major differences in national data sources are listed in the footnotes to the tables.

• In 1999, the expected stay in primary and secondary education (based on existing conditions) for a New Zealand five-year-old was 13.9 years. This was above the mean for all OECD countries of 13.0 years (see table 5.13). Note that neither the length of the school year nor the quality of education is necessarily the same in each country.
• Table 5.14 shows that in 1999, female graduation rates for upper secondary school students were higher than for their male counterparts across university entry qualifications, polytechnic entry qualifications; as well as vocational qualifications. With regards to qualifications for entry into university, this pattern was also replicated in other OECD countries. Overall, New Zealand upper secondary graduation rates in 1999 compared well with the average for all OECD countries.

Secondary schools – results of international assessments

New Zealand participated in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in both 1994/95 and 1989/99. This examined the level of ability of year nine students (mostly aged 14) in mathematics and science. It also assessed a primary school-aged cohort. In TIMSS, the assessment items were prepared following a detailed analysis of curriculum documents. Table 5.15 presents some summary results from TIMSS.

• In both subjects, New Zealand year eight students performed significantly below the average for other countries in both years. New Zealand students in 1999 scored an average of 491 in mathematics and 510 in science, compared with the international average of 529 and 534 respectively.
• Between 1995 and 1999, there was no statistically significant change in performance in New Zealand achievement in either mathematics or science.
• In the 1999 study, there were no statistically significant difference in performance between girls and boys in either mathematics or science.

New Zealand performed better in the 2000 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This international assessment of 15 year olds' ability in reading, mathematics and science was previously mentioned in part three (and is explained further in the Explanatory notes). While PISA and TIMSS are both international surveys of student achievement that share some methodological features, they differ in important ways. They are aimed at difference age cohorts. In addition, TIMSS is a curriculum-based assessment, while PISA goes beyond the curriculum to assess a wider range of skills. Selected results from PISA are presented in tables 5.16 to 5.21.

• On the combined reading literacy scale, 13.7 percent of New Zealand 15-year-olds performed to the lowest two levels of proficiency, compared with an OECD country average of 17.9 percent. At the top end, 44.5 percent of New Zealand 15-year-olds performed at the two highest levels of proficiency, compared with the OECD country average of 31.8 percent (see table 5.16).
• New Zealand 15-year-olds performed better, on average, than their OECD peers on both the mathematical and scientific literacy scales. The mean New Zealand result on the mathematical literacy scale of 537 compares with the OECD average of 500. The New Zealand mean scientific literacy scale score of 528 compares with the OECD average of 500 (see table 5.17).
• On the combined reading literacy scale, New Zealand 15-year-old girls outperformed their male counterparts, in terms of mean scores, by a statistically significant margin. This result was mirrored in every other OECD country. There was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of New Zealand girls and boys on the mathematical and scientific literacy scales. Across all OECD countries, boys outperformed girls, on average, on the mathematical literacy scale. There was no difference between the sexes, on average, in OECD mean scientific literacy results (see table 5.18).
• Table 5.19 shows that on the combined reading literacy scale, the variation in the performance of New Zealand 15-year-olds was 26.1 percent higher than the average for all OECD countries. Only a comparatively small proportion of the New Zealand variation resulted from differences between schools (16.2 percent compared to the OECD average of 35.2 percent). Instead, most of New Zealand's variation in student performance occurred within schools (83.8 percent compared to the OECD average proportion of 64.8 percent).
• Table 5.19 also shows how much of the variation could be explained by the socio-economic status of the students and schools. Over half (ie 11.6 percent / 20.1 percent) of the New Zealand variation in student performance at different schools was due to the different socio-economic status of the students and the school. Only a little over 10 percent (ie 11.0 percent / 103.9 percent) of the variation in performance amongst students at the same school could be explained by student and school socio-economic status.
• The OECD also investigated other factors that might explain variations in student performance. Selected results are included in tables 5.20 and 5.21:
  
  • For both New Zealand and OECD students, there was a statistically significant negative relationship between students who reported an interest in computers and their scores on the combine literacy scale (ie as interest in computers rose, other things remaining equal, mean scores fell). New Zealand students, on average, reported less interest in computers than their peers in the OECD, with females being less interested than boys.
  • However, there was a statistically significant positive relationship between New Zealand (and OECD) students' reported comfort with, and perceived ability to use, computers, and their scores on the combined reading literacy scale. Compared with the OECD mean, New Zealand 15-year-olds indicated they were, on average, more comfortable with their ability to use computers, with New Zealand girls far more comfortable than their OECD peers.
  • Whether a New Zealand 15-year-old was from a single-parent family or not, did not have a statistically significant relationship on the combined reading literacy scale.
  • A foreign-born New Zealand 15-year-old performed, on average, significantly worse on the combined reading literacy scale, than their New Zealand born peers. This effect was statistically significant, and was also seen across the OECD.
  • The socio-economic background of the student also had a strong, statistically significant effect on their combined reading literacy scores. Students from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed, on average, significantly worse on the combined reading literacy scale. There was a similar relationship across the OECD.
  • There was a positive, statistically significant, relationship between the years of schooling the parents had, and their 15-year-old children's scores on the combined reading literacy scale. This effect was also seen across the OECD.
  • The greater the number of educational resources (eg a dictionary, a quiet place to study, etc) that New Zealand students reported in their home, the higher, on average, their score on the combined reading literacy scale. There was a similar relationship across the OECD.
  • The greater the number of classical possessions (eg classical literature, works of art, etc) that New Zealand students reported in their home, the higher, on average, their score on the combined reading literacy scale. This effect was also seen across the OECD.

Tertiary education

The Ministry of Education collects a wide range of statistics on graduates and qualification completions from tertiary education providers. Examples of these statistics are provided in tables 5.22 to 5.29.

• The number of qualifications completed at public tertiary education institutions increased from 47,511 in 1995 to 63,487 in 2000, a rise of 33.6 percent. The principle contributor to this increase was the 61.0 percent rise in the number of degree level qualifications. Degree level qualifications have gone from 31.5 percent of all qualifications in 1995 to 38.0 percent in 2000, while the proportion of diploma-level qualifications fell from 17.3 percent in 1995 to 11.3 percent in 2000 (see table 5.22).
• The number of qualifications completed by males at public tertiary education institutions increased by 23.1 percent between 1995 and 2000 to reach 25,246. Numbers of qualifications completed by female graduates rose by 41.7 percent to reach 38,241. Females were more likely to graduate in degree and diploma level qualifications, while males were more likely to graduate in post-graduate and certificate level qualifications (see table 5.22).
• In 2000, 54 percent of the tertiary qualifications completed at public tertiary education institutions were completed at universities; 37 percent were completed at polytechnics; 6 percent at colleges of education; and 2 percent at wänanga (see table 5.23).
• Only 28 percent of tertiary qualifications completed by Mäori graduates in 2000 were completed at universities, compared with 57 percent for non-Mäori. The proportion of tertiary qualifications completed by Pacific students at universities in 2000 was 42 percent, compared with 53 percent for non-Pacific students (see table 5.24).
• Between 1997 and 2000, the number of tertiary qualifications completed by New Zealand European students increased by 7.0 percent to 39,619. Over the same period, the number of qualifications completed by Mäori students increased by 26.1 percent to 8,396. The number of qualifications completed by Pacific and Asian students increased by 16.2 percent and 16.7 percent respectively (see table 5.25).
• In 2000, of tertiary qualifications completed by New Zealand European students 58 percent were at the degree or postgraduate levels. For Mäori and Pacific students the comparable proportions were 32 percent and 36 percent respectively. The proportion of qualifications at the degree or postgraduate levels in 2000 for Asian students was 60 percent (see table 5.25).
• The years 1997 to 2000 saw an increase in the average age of a graduate at a public tertiary education institution. Over those four years, the number of qualifications completed by graduates under than 25 years of age increased by 7 percent, while the comparable figure for those 25 years and over was 20 percent. In 2000, half of all completed tertiary qualifications were completed by those aged 25 years and over (see table 5.26).
• In 2000, there were 74,592 qualifications completed at all publicly funded tertiary education providers (including private tertiary establishments). The most common fields of study among these qualifications were: 'commercial and business' (15,450); 'education' (9,175); 'humanities' (6,973) and 'service trades' (6,809). At the postgraduate level, the most common fields of study were: 'commercial and business' (2,201); 'humanities' (1,476); and 'natural and applied sciences' (1,285) (see table 5.27).
• The fields of study that experienced the largest increases in numbers of qualifications completed at public tertiary education institutions between 1997 and 2000 were 'education' and 'sports and recreation' (both up 34 percent); and 'computing' (up 33 percent). At the other end of the scale, the number of qualifications completed in 'social, behavioural and communication skills' decreased by 14 percent (see table 5.28).
• Of the qualifications completed at public tertiary education institutions in 2000, the fields of study that had the highest proportion of female students were: 'education' (81 percent); 'medical and health' (80 percent); and 'social, behavioural and communication skills' (78 percent). Fields of study with the lowest proportion of female graduates were 'industrial trades and crafts' (18 percent); and 'engineering' (20 percent) (see table 5.28).
• Across all ethnicities, 'commercial and business' was the most common field of study for tertiary qualifications completed in 2000. 'Education' was the second most common qualification among New Zealand European, Mäori and Pacific students. For Asian students, 'education' was the eighth most common field of study, with 'natural and applied sciences' coming second (see table 5.29).

The OECD collates statistics on educational attainment in the tertiary education sector in its member countries. As mentioned previously, caution is required when comparing these statistics between countries, as education systems can differ markedly between nations. This may result, for example, in fields of study definitions varying between countries. In terms of data collection, some countries use surveys, others administrative data. Timing of data collection also varies between countries. Major differences in national data sources are listed in the footnotes to the tables.

• Although New Zealand gender patterns in tertiary education attainment were similar to those in other OECD countries in 1999, New Zealand females were more likely to complete tertiary qualifications. In 1999 for example, 63 percent of New Zealanders completing their first tertiary-type A degree were female, compared with the mean for OECD countries of 53 percent. In the same year, 42 percent of New Zealanders completing advanced research programmes were female, compared with the OECD mean of 36 percent (see table 5.30).
• Table 5.30 also shows that New Zealand gender patterns across fields of study were also similar to those in other OECD countries in 1999, although across all fields of study the proportion of female graduates was relatively higher than the OECD average. For example, 79 percent of New Zealanders completing a tertiary-type A degree or advanced research programmes in 'health and welfare' were female, compared with the OECD country mean of 67 percent. Of those New Zealanders who completed a tertiary-type A degree or advanced research programme in 'engineering, manufacturing or construction', 31 percent were female compared with the OECD mean of 22 percent.
• Comparing the distribution of 1999 New Zealand-type B (ie diploma) graduates by their fields of study and their OECD counterparts revealed significant differences. For example, 48 percent of New Zealand tertiary-type B graduates had their field of study in 'humanities, arts and education' compared with the OECD country mean of 22 percent. Only 4 percent of New Zealand tertiary-type B graduates studied 'engineering, manufacturing and construction' compared with an OECD average of 16 percent (see table 5.31).
• For tertiary type-A (ie degree) graduates, the differences between New Zealand and OECD 1999 field of study distributions were less marked. Even so, only 6 percent of New Zealand tertiary-type A graduates studied 'engineering, manufacturing and construction' compared with an OECD average of 14 percent (see table 5.32).
• In terms of time spent studying at tertiary institutions, New Zealanders exceeded their OECD counterparts. Based on 1999 conditions, the average number of years expected to be spent in each of degree, diploma and post-secondary non-tertiary level education by New Zealand students was higher than the OECD averages. Note that neither the length of the academic year nor the quality of education is necessarily the same in each country. (see table 5.13).
• Overall, New Zealand students in 1999 were expected to spend 17.2 years in the formal education system, compared with the OECD country mean of 16.7 years. Interestingly, New Zealand males, at 16.5 years, had the same expected average as the OECD mean. It was the female average, at 17.8 years that pulled the New Zealand average above that of the OECD (see table 5.13).
  
   

Population – educational attainment

The most comprehensive source of educational attainment in the population is the Census of Population and Dwellings. Tables 5.34 to 5.38 provide examples of census data on highest qualification and post-school qualification fields of study. These tables refer to the census usually resident population count aged 15 years and over (ie adults who normally live in New Zealand and who were in the country on census night). Note that there are limitations on data obtained from the education questions in the 2001 Census due to relatively low response rates. Some 14.1 percent of people either did not answer the school or post-school level of attainment questions or did not answer them accurately enough to have their level of attainment classified. In addition, 18.2 percent of people did not answer the post-school qualification field of study question, or did not answer it accurately enough to have their field of study classified. Those who did not answer the post-school qualification questions tended to be in the younger and older age groups (ie the age groups that tend not to have post-school qualifications).

• The rise in the numbers of those achieving tertiary qualifications can be seen in tables 5.33a and 5.33b. In 1986, the proportion of the population aged 15 years and over2 who reported having no qualification was 42.3 percent, and the proportion who reported having a bachelor or higher degree was 5.5 percent. In 2001, the proportion who reported having no qualification was 27.6 percent, while the proportion that reported having a bachelor or higher degree was 11.8 percent. Note that 1986 and 2001 Census data on highest qualifications are not directly comparable due to questionnaire changes.
• In 2001, for those aged 15 and over2, the level of educational attainment for males and females was very similar. For example, 28 percent of males had no qualification in 2001, and 12 percent had a bachelor degree or higher, while the comparable figures for females were 27 percent and 11 percent (see table 5.34).
• However, these overall figures mask a change in educational attainment levels in males and females over time. In 2001, of those aged 55 to 64 years of age2, 11 percent of males had a bachelor or higher degree, compared with only 6 percent for similarly aged females. The comparable figures for those aged 25 to 34 years were 17 percent for males, and 19 percent for females (see table 5.34).
• The previous paragraph also points to the improvement in educational attainment for successive generations of New Zealanders. In 2001, of all those aged 55 to 642 years, 9 percent had a bachelors or higher degree, while 40 percent had no qualification. For those aged 25 to 34 years, 18 percent had a bachelor or higher degree and another 18 percent had no qualification (see table 5.34).
• In 2001, the proportion2 of adult New Zealand Europeans who had no school qualifications was 26 percent; for Mäori it was 44 percent; for Pacific Peoples it was 36 percent; and for Asians it was 14 percent (see table 5.35).
• In 2001, the proportion2 of adult New Zealand Europeans who had a bachelor or higher degree was 12 percent; for Mäori it was 5 percent; for Pacific Peoples it was 4 percent; and for Asians it was 23 percent (see table 5.35).
• By region of usual residence in 2001, Wellington had the highest proportion of adults2 with bachelor or higher degrees (18 percent) and the lowest proportion with no qualifications (22 percent). The West Coast was at the opposite end on both measures; with only 5 percent of adults having a bachelor or higher degree and 40 percent having no qualifications (see table 5.36).
• In 2001, the most common fields of study for adults highest post-school qualification were 'management and commerce' and 'engineering and related technologies'. The least common field of study was 'information technology'. Among those adults whose highest post-school qualification was a bachelor or higher degree, the most common field of study was 'society and culture', followed by 'management and commerce'. The least common field of study was 'food, hospitality and personal services' (see table 5.37).
• The most common post-school qualification field of study for males in 2001 was 'engineering and related technologies'; with 'health' the most common amongst females. The least common fields of study for males and females were 'creative arts' and 'architecture and building' respectively (see table 5.38).
• The most common field of study for Pacific Peoples and Asians who had post-school qualifications was 'management and commerce'. For New Zealand European and Mäori, the most common fields of study were 'engineering and related technologies' and 'society and culture' (see table 5.38).

Statistics on the educational attainment in the overall population are collated on member countries by the OECD. The data on educational attainment and population size used to construct these statistics are compiled from national labour force surveys. Educational classifications use in these surveys differs between countries. Although the OECD attempts to harmonise educational attainment data from each country to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97), some differences remain.

• Compared with their OECD counterparts, New Zealanders generally had higher levels of educational attainment. Of the New Zealand population in 1999 aged 25 to 64 years of age, 26 percent had no qualifications, compared with the OECD country mean of 36 percent. Proportionally more New Zealanders had school and tertiary-type B (diploma) qualifications (61 percent) than the OECD average (51 percent), while the proportions with tertiary-type A (degree) or advanced research education in New Zealand and the OECD overall were similar (see table 5.39).
• New Zealand's pattern of higher educational attainment by younger generations is also reflected in other OECD countries. Table 5.40 shows that in 1999, for New Zealand and the OECD, the proportion of the population that had attained at least upper secondary education decreased with each successive age band. Note also that for each age band, the proportion of New Zealanders who have obtained at least upper secondary education is higher than the average for OECD countries.
• This relationship breaks down, somewhat, for higher levels of educational attainment, as can be seen in table 5.41 for tertiary-type B and tertiary-type A/advanced research programmes. This could be due to older generations participating in adult education to increase education levels. Although this table shows that the proportion of New Zealanders that have completed tertiary-type B (diploma) qualifications is higher than the OECD average across all age bands, the proportion having completed tertiary-type A (degree) and advanced research qualifications was similar to the OECD country mean.
• A comparison of countries in 1995 by the OECD, as part of the International Adult Literacy Survey, found that the likelihood of obtaining a tertiary qualification increased for those whose parents also had a tertiary education. For example, a New Zealander aged between 16 and 65 years in 1995 was 2.1 times as likely to have a tertiary qualification if their parents had completed tertiary education, compared with those whose parents had not completed secondary education. Interestingly, this increased likelihood for those with tertiary educated parents increased from 2 times for 46 to 55-year-olds, to 2.8 times for 26 to 35-year-olds (see table 5.42).
• In 1999, the proportion of New Zealand tertiary science graduates3 in the labour force aged 25 to 34 years of age was 1.5 percent, which was higher than the OECD country mean of 1.2 percent. This was due to the higher prevalence of female tertiary science graduates in New Zealand (see table 5.43).

Population – results of international assessments

As mentioned in part four, New Zealand, along with 23 other nations, participated in the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS). The IALS assessed the abilities of those aged 16 to 65 years, on three different types of literacy – prose (understanding and using information from texts); document (locating and using information contained in various formats); and quantitative (applying arithmetic operations to numbers embedded in documents). For further information on the IALS see the Explanatory notes and the Glossary. Selected data from the IALS are presented in tables 5.44 to 5.47.

• New Zealand performed relatively well on the IALS, with the mean scores on all three literacy scales being slightly above the average across all participants. New Zealand performed best on the prose scale and less well on the on the quantitative scale, with the document scale coming in between (see table 5.44).
• New Zealand had a higher proportion (19.2 percent) of adults who performed at the highest levels on the prose scale compared with the average for all the participants (12.9 percent). On the quantitative scale, however, proportionately fewer New Zealanders (17.2 percent) performed at the highest levels, compared with the average for all the other participants (19.1 percent) (see table 5.45).
• Across all three literacy scales, average performance improved for both New Zealand and all participants combined, as the level of educational attainment increased (see table 5.46).
• On average, for all the IALS participants mean performance on all three literacy scales fell as age increased. New Zealand differed slightly in that performance on all three literacy scales was higher for those aged 26 to 35 years than for those aged 16 to 25 years. Performance then fell for those aged 36 to 45 and again for those aged 46 to 65 (although those aged 46 to 65 performed better on the quantitative scale than those aged 16 to 25 and 36 to 45) (see table 5.47).

1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1998). Human Capital Investment – An International Comparison, OECD, Paris, 15–34.
2. Excluding those whose response to the census highest qualification question was not stated or unidentifiable.
3. Science fields include 'life sciences'; 'physical sciences'; 'mathematics and statistics'; 'computing'; 'engineering and engineering trades'; 'manufacturing and processing'; and 'architecture and building'.

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